Timeless Treasures: Exploring the Rich History of Horology Pt. 1
The fascinating evolution of timekeeping, from early sundials to intricate mechanical clocks, as told by Frederick James Britten in “Old Clocks and Watches and Their Makers”
There are few greater thrills for horology nerds, than dusting off the cover of a long-forgotten book and discovering the history within its pages. Recently, I had the pleasure of delving into “Old Clocks and Watches and Their Makers” by Frederick James Britten, which offers a captivating journey through the history of timekeeping. The level of detail in this tome is simply remarkable.
In the spirit of sharing this find with fellow nerds, let us embark on a journey through time; we’ll cover the first few chapters here, and save the rest for another day.
Estimated reading time: ~ 30 minutes
Time and Early Time Recorders
Solar Time and Celestial Cycles
First, Britten provides an in-depth explanation of solar time and the various celestial cycles used to measure the passage of time. He notes that whilst the Earth’s rotation might seem to bring each location to the meridian at regular intervals, this is not entirely correct due to the planet’s simultaneous advancement in its orbit. As a result, the days are not of equal duration, a fact that is further compounded by the influence of the moon, Venus, and Jupiter on the Earth’s motion.
He goes on to describe the Cycle of the Sun, a period of 28 years after which the days of the week again fall on the same dates within each month. He also explains the importance of the Golden Number, a 19-year cycle discovered by the ancient Greek astronomer Meton, which was used to figure out the dates of new and full moons and to calculate the timing of movable feasts in the Christian calendar1.
Britten also delves into the concept of the Epact, which stands for the number of days that must be added to each lunar year to complete a solar year. This calculation was essential for aligning the lunar and solar calendars and for figuring out the date of Easter each year2. The Number of Direction, another crucial part of the ecclesiastical calendar, is also explained in detail, along with the Roman Indiction and the Julian Period3.
Meridian Dials and Sundials
Britten’s description of early time recorders begins with an in-depth examination of sundials. He provides clear instructions for creating a simple meridian dial, allowing readers to understand the ingenuity of our ancestors in using the sun’s movement to measure time4.
He presents a fascinating account of a complex meridian dial that once adorned St. Peter’s Cathedral in Geneva from 1760 until it was renovated in 1894. This device showed the precise moment of solar noon5 and also accounted for the equation of time, displaying the difference between true solar time and mean solar time throughout the year6 (shown below).
One intriguing anecdote relates to the Solarium Augusti or sundial of Augustus, erected in the Campus Martius in Rome. This enormous structure used an Egyptian obelisk as its gnomon7, casting its shadow onto a vast marble pavement marked with bronze lines. Sadly, within a few decades of its construction, the dial had become inaccurate due to the settling of the obelisk’s foundation; A little reminder of the challenges faced by early timekeepers8.
One of the most remarkable sundials of the Renaissance period was the great dial at Hampton Court Palace, commissioned by Henry VIII. This clock, created in 1540, told the time and simultaneously displayed detailed astrological information; a nod to the Tudor fascination with celestial influences on earthly affairs9.
Clepsydrae and Other Early Timekeepers
In his exploration of water clocks, or clepsydrae, Britten traces their evolution from simple outflow devices to complex mechanisms incorporating gears and automata. Below is a basic example and explanation:
One example of early clepsydrae is the water clock of Ctesibius, constructed in Alexandria around 270 BC. This marvel of ancient engineering featured floating indicators, gears, and even a rudimentary escapement mechanism, foreshadowing developments that would not become widespread for over a millennium10. Here it is, with water flow starting at the top left ‘A’ - see if you can follow the logic, and if not, the video below will explain further.
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Weight-Driven Clocks
Early Mechanical Clocks
The transition to weight-driven clocks marked a significant advancement in timekeeping. Britten provides a detailed description of the clock made by Henry de Vick for Charles V of France in 1370; This clock’s verge and foliot escapement became the standard for European clocks for the next 300 years.
One of the more charming anecdotes Britten shares relates to the creation of a public clock at Westminster. In the sixteenth year of Edward I’s reign (1298), Lord Chief Justice Randulphus de Hengham was fined 800 marks for altering a court record. The story goes that this fine was used to fund the construction of a clock tower opposite Westminster Hall, complete with a great striking bell. He does mention the accuracy of this story is questionable, but I really enjoy these ‘rumours’ within any formal history lesson11.
Another interesting story is about the Glastonbury Abbey clock, believed to have been made by Peter Lightfoot around 1335. This clock was said to be so advanced for its time that it not only told the hours but also showed the phases of the moon and the time of high water at various ports. When the abbey was dissolved in 1539, the clock was moved to Wells Cathedral, where it continues to run today, albeit with a more modern mechanism. The original face, however, still bears witness to the insane artisanry of medieval clockmakers12.
Among the most famous early weight-driven clocks is the one said to have been presented to Anne Boleyn by Henry VIII on their wedding morning. This gilt-bronze clock, now housed at Windsor Castle, really is a testament to the intricate craftmanship of the Tudor period13.
Striking Mechanisms and Jacks
Britten’s exploration of striking mechanisms and animated figures, known as Jacks, provides some of the most engaging content in these early chapters. He describes several notable examples, including the charming figures at Dijon, where a man and woman struck bells on either side of the clock face, and the famous “Jack the Smiter” at Southwold Church14.
One of the more curious timekeepers Britten describes is the so-called “Clock of the Winds” created by Odo of Morimont in the 14th century. This device used a vane exposed to the wind to power an escapement, effectively creating a clock driven by air currents rather than weights or springs. Whilst not as accurate as other methods, it demonstrated the innovative spirit of medieval timekeepers who wanted to harness various natural phenomena in their quest for accurate timekeeping15.
A fun example is the clock at St. Mary Steps, Exeter. Here, three figures - a seated Henry VIII and two standing soldiers - performed a miniature spectacle at each quarter hour. The soldiers would strike bells with hammers, whilst Henry nodded his head in apparent approval. These whimsical automata not only served a practical timekeeping purpose but also provided entertainment and wonder to onlookers16.
Notable Clocks and Their Makers
Throughout these chapters, Britten showcases a wealth of remarkable clocks and the brilliant minds behind their creation. From the astronomical masterpiece of Giovanni de Dondi to the ornate and complex clocks of the 16th century, each example is presented with a depth of historical context and technical detail that is truly captivating.
A great example is the clock of Lyons Cathedral, completed in 1598. This featured a complex system of dials showing various astronomical phenomena, as well as an array of automata performing religious scenes. Britten’s description brings to life the wonder that such a device must have inspired in its contemporary audience17.
The Strasbourg Cathedral clock is a marvel of Renaissance engineering and artistry. The second clock, completed in 1574, seemed far ahead of its time. It stood three stories high and featured a complex system of gears and mechanisms that powered not only the timekeeping functions, but also a range of automated figures and astronomical displays18.
Perhaps its most famous feature was the ‘Rooster Clock’. At noon each day, a life-sized mechanical rooster would crow and flap its wings, drawing crowds of amazed onlookers. The clock also featured a procession of the Apostles, who would emerge from a door above the dial and parade before a figure of Christ.
The astronomical features of the clock were equally impressive. It accurately tracked the positions of the sun, moon, and known planets, and even accounted for leap years in its perpetual calendar. This clock was not just a timekeeper, but a representation of the medieval view of the cosmos19.
Portable Timekeepers
The development of portable timekeepers marked a significant advancement in horological history. Britten discusses several early examples and innovations in this field.
Early Portable Clocks
One of the earliest references to a truly portable timekeeper comes from the late 15th century. Peter Henlein, a locksmith from Nuremberg, is often credited with creating some of the first pocket watches around 1510. These early portable timekeepers, sometimes called “Nuremberg eggs” due to their oval shape, used a mainspring rather than weights as a power source20.
The Mainspring and Fusee
The introduction of the mainspring allowed for the creation of smaller, portable timekeepers. However, early mainsprings provided inconsistent power, delivering more force when fully wound than when nearly unwound. To counteract this, the fusee - a cone-shaped pulley with a spiral groove - was developed. This device helped to equalise the force of the mainspring throughout its unwinding process21.
Notable Early Examples
Britten describes some interesting early portable timekeepers:
The “Melanchthon Watch”: This drum-shaped watch from around 1530 is believed to have belonged to the German reformer Philip Melanchthon.
The Mary Queen of Scots Watch: A small, book-shaped watch said to have been owned by Mary Stuart, though its provenance is disputed.
The “Nef” or Ship Clock: These ornate table clocks, shaped like ships, were popular in the 16th century. A famous example is the Schloss Amerang Nef, created around 158522.
Innovations in Portable Timekeeping
Britten goes on to discuss various innovations that improved the accuracy and functionality of portable timekeepers:
The balance spring, independently invented by Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens in the 1670s, greatly improved the accuracy of watches.
The development of repeating mechanisms in the late 17th century allowed watches to chime the hours on demand23.
The invention of the lever escapement by Thomas Mudge in 1755 paved the way for more accurate portable timekeepers24.
Britten recounts the story of a portable clock said to have been owned by King Robert Bruce of Scotland in the early 14th century. This clock, which was supposedly small enough to be carried on horseback, was described as having a balance wheel and escape mechanism, features that wouldn’t become common for another two centuries. Whilst the existence of such an advanced clock at this early date is disputed by many historians, the tale underscores the longstanding fascination with portable timekeeping devices25.
Monumental Civic Clocks
As clock technology advanced, many European cities looked to show their wealth and sophistication by commissioning elaborate public clocks. One of the most famous of these is the St. Mark’s Clock in Venice, installed in the late 15th century.
This remarkable setup dominates the northern facade of the clock tower in St. Mark’s Square. It features a large blue and gold dial showing the hours, the phases of the moon, and the zodiac signs. Above the dial, two bronze figures known as “Moors” strike a large bell to mark the hours.
Perhaps the most spectacular feature of the St. Mark’s Clock occurs only twice a year, at Epiphany and on Ascension Day. On these occasions, an automated procession of the Three Magi appears from a door above the clock face, bowing before a figure of the Virgin Mary26.
Conclusion
Sadly, we must conclude our exploration of the opening chapters. What a trip! It’s clear that “Old Clocks and Watches and Their Makers” is a treasure trove of horological knowledge and history. Britten’s engaging prose and exhaustive research bring the story of early timekeeping to life in a way that is both informative and captivating, offering a fascinating glimpse into the minds and methods of the brilliant craftsmen who laid the foundation for the modern world of horology. This post took forever, and I’m not sure how long it’ll take to get through the rest of it - but hope you enjoyed it and keep an eye out for future posts covering this book, because it ain’t over yet!
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Calculation of the Golden Number: To calculate the Golden Number for any year, add 1 to the year, divide by 19, and take the remainder. If there’s no remainder, the Golden Number is 19. For example, for the year 2023: (2023 + 1) / 19 = 106 remainder 10, so the Golden Number for 2023 is 10. This system, devised in ancient Greece, was crucial for aligning solar and lunar calendars.
Formula for calculating the Epact: Epact = (11 x (Golden Number - 1)) mod 30. Using the Golden Number from the earlier example, for 2023: Epact = (11 x (10 - 1)) mod 30 = 99 mod 30 = 9. The Epact was essential for calculating the date of Easter in the Christian calendar.
The Julian Period: This 7,980-year cycle, introduced by Joseph Scaliger in 1583, combines the 28-year Solar Cycle, the 19-year Metonic Cycle, and the 15-year Indiction Cycle. It provides a continuous count of days, useful for correlating dates from different calendar systems.
Detailed instructions for creating a meridian sundial: On a flat stone, draw 4-5 concentric circles, 1/4 inch apart. Fix a perpendicular pin in the centre, long enough for its shadow to fall within the innermost circle for at least 4 hours midday. Set the stone level in a sunny spot. Mark where the shadow tip touches each circle as it shortens (morning) and lengthens (afternoon). Find the midpoint between each pair of marks on any circle. Draw a line from the centre through this midpoint to indicate true north-south. This line will show local noon when the shadow aligns with it.
The white spot in the middle of the disc’s shadow shows solar noon when it is bisected by the central vertical line.
Geneva Cathedral sundial: This dial, created in 1755, is considered one of the most accurate of its kind, with an error of less than 30 seconds throughout the year.
A gnomon is the part of a sundial that casts a shadow. The term is used for a variety of purposes in mathematics and other fields.
Augustus’ sundial: The obelisk used for this sundial can still be seen today in the Piazza Montecitorio in Rome, though it no longer functions as a timekeeper.
Hampton Court Palace Astronomical Clock: Designed by Nicholas Kratzer, astronomer to Henry VIII, features over 30 dials displaying various astronomical and astrological information. It remains one of the finest examples of Tudor scientific instruments.
Ctesibius’ water clock: This clock is believed to have used a float regulator, an invention that wouldn’t be widely adopted in Europe until the 17th century.
Westminster clock tower: The current Elizabeth Tower (commonly known as Big Ben) stands near the supposed site of this early clock.
Glastonbury Abbey clock: The clock face is divided into 24 hours, reflecting the medieval practice of counting all the hours of the day in a single sequence.
It also features their entwined initials and the motto “The Most Happi”, a poignant reminder of Anne’s brief reign as queen.
Jacks and striking mechanisms: These animated figures were not just decorative but served to draw attention to the time, important in an era when many people couldn’t read clock faces.
See also: Southwold Jack
Clock of the Winds: This clock’s concept was revisited in the 20th century with the development of atmospheric clocks.
St. Mary Steps clock: Local legend claims that the seated figure originally represented Henry VIII’s father, Henry VII, and was later changed.
Lyons Cathedral clock: This clock also featured a perpetual calendar and an astrolabe, making it one of the most complex devices of its era.
Strasbourg Cathedral clock: The current clock is the third in a series of astronomical clocks in the cathedral. It calculates Easter and displays a rotating calendar of saints’ days, in addition to its timekeeping and astronomical functions.
Strasbourg Cathedral Clock: The current clock, installed in 1842, is the third in a series of astronomical clocks in the cathedral. It calculates Easter and displays a rotating calendar of saints’ days, in addition to its timekeeping and astronomical functions.
Nuremberg eggs: These early watches were notoriously inaccurate, often losing several hours per day, but were prized more for their novelty than their timekeeping ability.
Fusee: This device remained a standard feature in high-quality watches until the late 19th century.
Nef clocks: These ship-shaped clocks often incorporated other features such as automated figures, music boxes, and even functional miniature cannons.
The invention of the repeating clock is attributed to English cleric Edward Barlow in 1676, who used the ‘rack and snail’ to develop a striking mechanism producing repetitive strikes (at the pull of a rope) within a clockwork, creating the first repeater-style clocks capable of chiming time intervals on demand.
Lever escapement: This invention by Mudge was not widely adopted until the 19th century, when it became the standard for quality pocket watches.
Robert Bruce’s clock: While likely apocryphal, this story reflects the long-standing desire for accurate, portable timekeepers, a dream that wouldn’t be fully realised for centuries.
St. Mark’s Clock, Venice: The clock mechanism was created by father and son team Gian Paolo and Gian Carlo Rainieri between 1496 and 1499. The clock not only tells time but also displays the dominant zodiac sign and phase of the moon.
A wealth of info👏
Very interesting 🤓 looking forward to other parts.
Also interesting one is the astronomical clock in Prague :D one of the oldest I believe